Herpes Simplex Virus Antiviral Drug Resistance

Herpes Simplex Virus Antiviral Drug Resistance Omer Baskan The increasing drug resistance of the herpes simplex virus Abstract Herpes simplex infections remain very common worldwide, the development of new treatments is of vital importance, particularly for the severely immunocompromised individuals due to the increasing emergence of HSV resistant strains being reported. The standard treatment for HSV still remains highly effective, however there is an ever increasing risk that drug resistant HSV will become more prevalent due to the reliance on a limited group of drugs: acyclovir, foscarnet and cidofovir. This review aims to address the failure of previous studies conducted, which include the focus on treating acyclovir resistant HSV with foscarnet and cidofovir but not aiming to discover new compounds which might be used to treat HSV instead. A valuable source for new treatments is the abundance of natural compounds which exhibit antiviral properties. Several candidates are addressed and discussed in this review. Introduction A large family of DNA viruses commonly known as herpesviridae is largely known for causing diseases in humans as well as animals. The most prevalent forms of the virus family are known as HSV-1, HSV-2, Varicella zoster virus, Epstein-Barr virus and Cytomegalovirus. All five mentioned members of the herpesvirus family (herpesviridae) are known to infect humans (Sandri-Goldin, 2006), in total there 8 herpesviruses which can infect humans, these include human herpesvirus 6 and 7, and finally Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (Carter Saunders, 2013). So far there are more than 130 herpesviruses which can affect a range of animals (Brown Newcomb, 2011). Herpesviruses are latent therefore they can remain in most people undetected, as the virus establishes itself in the ganglia of the peripheral nervous system (Stevens, 1975). It is reported that more than 90% of adults have been infected with the aforementioned species of the virus (Chayavichitsilp et al., 2009). Once an HSV infection occurs it will establish latency and can then multiply in large numbers as it has been reactivated, this then allows for the infection of a new host. In people who have a competent immune system the infection can be both painful and distressing but most importantly it is seldom life threatening. As a result the risks associated with herpes simplex are underestimated by people. However individuals with a HSV infection who also happen to have an impaired immune system can have life threatening symptoms which can result in death (Severson Tyring, 1999). The preferred treatment of choice is the use of acyclovir (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003) but due to its widespread use it has led to the emanation of HSV strains which are resistant to acyclovir (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). Resistant strains were first reported in 1982 (Sibrack et al., 1982). Therefore, surveys were conducted which showed that there was a recurring low incidence rate of acyclovir resistant strains among i mmunocompetent patients which was 0.6% (Englund et al., 1990). However among patients who have an impaired immune system the acyclovir resistant strains which were recovered showed a frequency ranging from 3 to 6%, this figure then reaches 14% among patients who have received a bone marrow transplant (Englund et al., 1990). This review aims to deal with the features attributed with the emanation of acyclovir resistant HSV as well as the epidemiological features. Whilst addressing the severity of the emerging drug resistance strains of HSV and its impact on immunocompromised patients. This review will also aim to highlight potential natural compounds which are new candidates for the development of new antivirals to combat HSV, as well as many compounds which should have further investigation into its antiviral properties. Epidemiology It is rare for resistance to ACV to occur in immunocompetent patients but there have been reports that described that there is a below 1% occurrence of ACV resistance in the population (Nugier et al., 1992). Most acyclovir resistant HSV isolated from patients with competent immune systems have been detected because of repeatedly having genital herpes. The observed occurrence ranged from 3.5 to 8.6% (Fife et al., 1994). In most cases the course of antivirals remained unchanged, there was only three cases of genital herpes were use of acyclovir was unsuccessful due to HSV being resistant to acyclovir (Mouly et al., 1995). Acyclovir resistant among certain HSV infections is about 5% (Christophers et al., 1998), this is only among immunocompromised patients who are most at risk of contracting an acyclovir resistant HSV. Infections caused by HSV among bone marrow transplant patients shows that patients that have received a bone marrow of either autologous or allogeneic origin have the same risk of developing an HSV infection. Resistance to acyclovir was detected only among allogeneic bone marrow transplant patients, this led to the discovery of the prevalence of resistance reaching 30% in patients who have had an allogeneic bone marrow transplant (Morfin et al., 2004). HSV strains that have been isolated from 3000 patients have been tested and have shown that half of them were immunocompetent whereas the other half had a immunocompromised system (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). The resistance of acyclovir was 0.3% among immunocompetent and 4% among immunocompromised (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). Concerning the certain type of immunosuppression present, the resistance has been detected as 2.8% among solid organ transplant patients, 3.5% among HIV infected patients and at 29% for allogeneic transplant patients (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). These results show that the prevalence of acyclovir resistant HSV was stable in 2003 compared to previous studies published more than 10 years ago. This level of stability is same for both immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients. As suggested by previous studies, resistance to acyclovir is a major concern for allogeneic bone marrow transplant patients. Mechanism of resistance Nucleoside analogues make up the majority of antiherpetic drugs in clinical use (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). Acyclovir is a guanosine analogue, as is penciclovir. Cidofovir is a phosphonate molecule which is derived from cytidine and foscarnet has a very different structure, as it is analogous to a pyrophosphate. The mechanism of action for acyclovir and penciclovir involve two viral enzymes. These are thymidine kinase which is for the first phosphorylation of the activation step and DNA polymerase, which is used as a target for the triphosphate form. Only two phosphorylations are needed for cidofovir for it to obtain the active diphosphate molecule, with both being performed by cellular kinases. Foscarnet only acts directly on the viral DNA polymerase (Figure 1; De Clercq et al., 2001). There are three mechanisms which are involved in HSV resistance to acyclovir: an alteration of thymidine kinase substance specificity, an alteration of DNA polymerase activity and a loss of thymidine kinase activity (Larder et al., 1983). The viral gene encoding for thymidine kinase can have a mutation occur within them resulting in 95% of acyclovir resistance isolates presenting a thymidine kinase deficient phenotype (Hill et al., 1991). Recovery of thymidine kinase deficient, altered and positive virus in a single isolate can lead to a detection of resistance of susceptible viruses (Nugier et al., 1992). These mutations that can cause resistance, occur spontaneously during viral replication therefore viruses which are resistant can then be selected for antiviral treatment. Functional DNA polymerase is required for viral replication but not for thymidine kinase. Therefore, there is a higher probability of a viable acyclovir resistant virus being caused by a mutation in the thymidine kinase gene, than by a mutation which occurs in the DNA polymerase. Viral pathogenesis of mutant viruses depends on the resistance phenotype. However to DNA polymerase and thymidine kinase altered mutants, thymidine kinase deficient HSV is known to be impaired for pathogenesis in animal models (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). Therefore they fail to reactivate from a latent form in explanted tissue ganglia (Kosz-Vnenchak et al., 1990). Thymidine kinase activity is not involved in the formation of latent infections but it is required for the virus to reactivate from latency (Efstathiou et al., 1989). After isolation of resistant HSV, the reactivations tend to be associated with the original, thymidine kinase positive and acyclovir sensitive strain (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). Although, there are few reports checking reactivations due to the acyclovir resistant virus associated with the thymidine kinase altered virus (Kost et al., 1993) or thymidine kinase deficient virus (Morfin et al., 2000). Management of HSV infections with acyclovir resistance In order to manage an HSV infection which is resistant to acyclovir we currently have to use several antiviral drugs. Many of the acyclovir resistant HSV isolates tend to be resistant to penciclovir but this occurs rarely. Some isolates can be resistant to acyclovir but still be susceptible to penciclovir as there have been reported cases; mechanisms of resistance to acyclovir of these particular strains was most likely an altered thymidine kinase protein (Sutton Boyd, 1993) or it could have been that a mutation occurred in the viral DNA polymerase (Suzutani et al., 2003). The thymidine kinase protein allows for acyclovir to become active but only in cells which are infected with HSV (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). Cidofovir and foscanet act directly on the viral DNA polymerase without the need of activation by viral thymidine kinase. The molecules cidofovir and foscarnet are both active on the HSV which is resistant to acyclovir, this is due to a mutation in the thymidine kinase gene (B lot et al., 2000), however in clinical practice the molecules cidofovir and foscarnet are associated with high levels of toxicity. Managing a acyclovir resistant HSV infection can be further improved by decreasing immunosuppressive treatments for the patient (Collins Oliver, 1986). In vitro detection of resistance In vitro evaluation of HSV susceptibility to antiviral drugs is based on the determination of viral replication inhibition in the presence of increasing concentrations of antiviral drugs. There are three techniques which are available to reveal viral replication: plaque reduction assay which is the reference technique, dye uptake method (Langlois et al., 1986) and DNA hybridisation test (Swierkosz et al., 1987). The dye uptake method and DNA hybridisation test are known to be less time consuming as the reading cytopathic effect is automatable (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). The concentration of antiviral drugs can be determined by the three techniques mentioned which can lead to viral replication inhibition by 50% (inhibitory concentration 50%, IC50). To discriminate between the resistant strains, IC50 thresholds must be defined for every single virus and antiviral drug set. The values are determined using the mean value obtained for susceptible viruses. These thresholds are arbitrary and the detection of resistance is coming from the evolution of IC50 values of sequential isolates from a patient. There has been a development of several screening techniques using a limited number of viral dilutions and antiviral drug concentrations (Danve et al., 2002). The phenotypic methods all require isolation of viral strains on the cell cultures. This is time consuming and can delay the adaptation of antiviral treatment according to in vitro susceptibility (Danve et al., 2002). Therefore genotypic tests are being developed in order to detect the resistant virus strains at a much shorter time delay (Morfin Thouvenot, 2003). The viral genes which are used to encode thymidine kinase and DNA polymerase are amplified by PCR and the products then produced by PCR can be then sequenced. The main area of concern lies in the fact that many nucleotide substitutions can be found and they must then be identified as the mutations which are responsible for resistance. This interpretation will made easier as more results on mutations detected in the resistant isolates are then collected for future comparison and analysis. Natural products with anti-herpes simplex virus activity A phenolic compound known as Caffeic acid which is shown below, is an effective substance in Plantago major (Figure 2; Bourne et al., 1999). It has been shown to exhibit strong activity against HSV-1 but decreased activity against HSV-2 (Mundinger Efferth, 2008). Reducing the number of hydroxyl groups from the phenolic compound has also shown to reduce activity against HSV-1 (Chiang et al., 2002). Curcumin (Figure 3A) which is shown below is another phenolic compound and is mainly present in the spice turmeric and was found to inhibit genes of HSV-1 by an unknown mechanism (Mundinger Efferth, 2008). It has also been previously shown that curcumin is slightly active against HSV-2 in vitro. An in vivo assay with the use of a mouse model of intravaginal HSV-2 infections showed that curcumin can provide significant protection (Mundinger Efferth, 2008). In a further experiment cineole (Figure 3B), exhibited very similar results to curcumin, whilst eugenol (Figure 3C) provided results in the mouse model which showed the most promise (Mundinger Efferth, 2008). This study was then repeated but this time with the use of guinea pigs to represent the course of HSV-2 infection. The use of guinea pigs allowed for a more accurate representation of the infection that could occur in humans. The results showed that eugenol was again highly effective (Mundinger Efferth, 2008). The use of eugenol resulted in fewer animals developing primary infections. Benencia and Courreges have confirmed the effectiveness of eugenol at preventing virus replication (Benencia Courrà ¨ges, 2000). Therefore, it was suggested that eugenol may damage the envelope proteins of the newly-synthesised virus particles (Serkedjieva Manolova, 1992). In the animal models, it was shown that capsaicin was effective against HSV. Although, it was noxious when it was applied to the mucous membranes and also caused an unpleasant burning sensation. Consequently, civamide (Figure 4) was tested in animal models as it is less noxious. When civamide was administered prior to the virus challenge it was shown to reduce primary infections, it was also to shown to reduce the effect of the infection after the virus challenge (Mundinger Efferth, 2008). Civamide was also shown to reduce the latent infection recurrence but only when it was used as a weekly treatment for suppressive maintenance therapy (Bourne et al., 1999). Propolis has long been seen as a natural product for antiviral treatments. Nine flavonoids were identified from propolis which were tested for their level of effectiveness against HSV (Amoros et al., 1992). From the group of substances which were tested, galangin and kaempferol (Figure 5) were shown to have the highest anti-HSV in vitro activity (Lyu et al., 2005). A monoterpene which is found in several essential oils named isoborneol (Figure 5), was found to exhibit interesting anti-HSV activity which warranted further investigation. The tests showed that isoborneol was quickly able to inactivate HSV with a 30 minute period of exposure, and it was also completely able to inhibit viral replication at very low concentrations. The presence of isoborneol allowed for the glycosylation of certain viral polypeptides to be inhibited, whilst the glycosylation of cellular proteins remained unchanged. Glycosylation was normal in the presence of isoborneol when copies of the viral proteins were introduced into the cellular genome (Armaka et al., 1999). These results seemingly indicate that isoborneol may be a promising new candidate for HSV treatment. Several sulphated polysaccharides have shown to possess anti-HSV activity, and many carrageenans which are mainly found in red seaweed have been shown to be active against HSV infections. In models of intravaginal HSV-2 infection, mice were shown to exhibit significant signs of protection against HSV infections (Bourne et al., 1999; Talarico et al., 2004), and they were also protected from infection in the abdominal cavity when carrageenan was administered after infection (Pujol et al., 2006). Conclusion Infections of HSV have a high occurrence globally therefore the number of infections is not expected to decrease significantly over the next couple of years. Due to the increasing number of immunocompromised patients and prolonged period of standardised treatment this can only exacerbate the problems caused by drug resistant HSV. The increasing use of acyclovir as the immediate antiviral drug of use to treat an HSV infection has increased the fear of the increasing numbers of acyclovir resistant infections, notably in prophylaxis treatments among transplant patients. However, studies that have been conducted have shown that acyclovir resistant HSV is largely a concern for severely immunocompromised patients, such as those patients who have received a bone marrow from an allogeneic origin. When an acyclovir resistant strain of HSV arises it is best to manage the infection with other antiviral drugs which have different mechanisms of action, the most useful two to use would be foscarnet or cidofovir. There is an urgent need for new treatment options to be developed as current treatment options do remain limited. There is the main use of acyclovir and then the subsequent use of foscarnet or cidofovir which is only used if acyclovir resistance is present. This shows that there is a limited amount of effective treatments available. Therefore, new treatments must be made available in order to avoid any future HSV epidemics. The antiviral potential of the natural products indicates that there is still a wide range of compounds which could be useful in the battle against drug resistant HSV, mainly HSV which is resistant to acyclovir; as it is the main major concern moving forward. Therefore, it is highly advised that research in this area continues so that an even larger amount of compounds can be identified in order to combat drug resistant HSV.

How Far Do You Agree That “the Play of King Lear Presents Us

How far do you agree that â€Å"The play of King Lear presents us with a bleak and cruel world and offers us no comfort at the end Much of Shakespeare’s King Lear follows themes such as betrayal on the part of the antagonists and the protagonist’s blindness of the events which have befallen them. For example in a rage with Kent Lear exclaims ‘Out of my sight! ’ with Kent’s retort simply being ‘See better Lear’ this motif of a characters blindness continues throughout the play.Some of the characters can be seen to be prolifically cruel throughout the play and while many of the these characters die by the end of the play their actions still have ramifications. Gonerill and Regan for example strip their father of his self awareness and leave him to scrabble for his sanity on an unwelcoming and bleak heath. Lear is not exempt from blame for his circumstances but the disastrous and tragic consequences seem to out balance the flaws in his fra gile mind.This is a tragedy however so Lear’s downfall as the result his hamartia was expected for the katharsis of the Jacobean audiences to be achieved. The play has a sinister atmosphere but Shakespeare may have tried to include moments of comfort either for the tension of the drama or to give the audience a sense of hope. In Act 1 of King Lear Shakespeare seems to foreshadow the key themes of the play which often have sorrowful consequences for many of the characters.For example when Lear decides that he will test his daughter’s flattery in exchange for their share of the kingdom, ‘Which of you shall we say doth love us most, that we our largest bounty may extend’ the contest seems to be an empty gesture as Gloucester and Kent had already discussed that both dukes could already expect an equal share of England ‘for qualities are so weighed that curiosity in neither can make choice of either’s moiety’.The kings’ empty words ar e soon mirrored by his children’s as Gonerill remarks that ‘Sir, i love you more that word can wield the matter’ and ‘A love that makes breath poor, and speech unable’ her hyperbole contradicts her when she goes on to explain further. Regan too expresses her true feelings poorly by simply agreeing with her sister ‘I am made of that self-mettle as my sister’ this sounds as if it were just a shallow echo of Gonerill without out conviction of love Lear expected.However Lear does not recognise this as the audience might and so when Cordelia decides that she must ‘Love, and be silent’ and says ‘nothing my lord’ Lear indicates his own future ‘Nothing will come of nothing’ Because of Gonerill’s lack of seniority her expressions of love are devalued and mean nothing so that when Cordelia characterises her feelings towards Lear as loving him ‘According to my bond, no more nor less’ she re establishes the verbal integrity. To a Jacobean audience the theme of nothing may be more prevalent just from Lear’s initial speech ‘Know, that we have divided in three our kingdom†¦ To a christian audience this may have emulated Matthew 12. 25 ‘Every kingdom divided against itself is brought to desolation’. Yet even when in the most dire circumstances compassion is shown by various characters. After he is thrown into a storm and in his words Lear’s ‘†¦ wits begin to turn’ he still shows pity for the fool when he asks ‘Come on, my boy: how dost, my boy? art cold? ’ This is either one of few examples of Lear’s selflessness or his attempt to cling to his only symbol of reality. The injustice of many of the characters are obvious throughout the play.But there are some signs of pity and compassion and of loyalty too. This is usually due to a possible feelings of obligation to family or superiority which contrast ingly in other examples become treachery. For example Gloucester’s ultimate punishment for his trust in Edmond is that Cornwall puts out the Earl’s eyes. A servant protests at the brutality of Gloucester’s treatment ‘†¦ But better service have I never done you’ Along with Cordelia and Kent the servant pays the ultimate price for this and is killed.The King’s fool is mourned at the end of the play by Lear because of his selfless attitude towards helping Lear’s understanding ‘So out went the candle, and we were left darkling’. When Gonerill begins to undermine Lear’s sanity the fools says this to relay it to Lear. The loyalty of both the Fool and Kent to Lear can be seen as a comforting thought, suggesting that the king who had lost everything still maintained allies. The Fool used seemingly frivolous songs to try and guide Lear however unsuccessfully into a better situation.Kent too remained loyal, even after Le ar had banished Kent he felt a need to serve his master faithfully. Unfortunately in the final act Lear states that ‘my poor fool is hanged’ and after Lear’s death Kent says ‘My master calls me i must not say no’ suggesting he must follow Lear into death. In this instance the folly of humans are overrun by the divine goodness of nature. However the play may also send another spiritual point, a more nihilistic one; if in fact there is such a thing of gods then they are not sympathetic to the tribulations of human society and are as cruel to them as any animal.This is perhaps inconceivable to Lear as he scorns Gonerill and Regan’s behavior as ‘unnatural’ and uses animal image and similes to describe them, her tongue is said to be ‘serpent like’ and whose gratitude is ‘sharper than a serpent’s tooth’. Both may be biblical references to the greed and wickedness of mankind. Edgar too describes himself a s a ‘dog in madness’ and ‘wolf in greedines’ here we know that unlike Lear Edgar is not mad and so his word may be taken as a small parable of mankind’s fragility.At realising his two eldest daughters are betraying him Lear calls to the heavens to take his side and strike them with a storm ‘ ‘O heavens ! If you do love old men, if your sweet sway, show obedience, if you yourselves are old, make it you cause. Send down, and take my part! ’ The cruel dramatic irony being that it will be Lear who suffers a terrible storm on the heath and in his mind. As well as this the audience may see that Lear’s language hasn’t changed from the beginning of the play when he still held a position of power.Lears first words of the play is a command ‘ Attend the lords of France and Burgundy Gloucester’ This imperative sentence shows his authority which even when Gonerill and Regan reduce his only semblance of his kingship, h is army to nothing he still clings to like a child, ‘Send down and take my part! ’. This may be the root of Lear’s downfall. At the time of King Lear’s first performance, England was in political and economic turmoil Elizabeth I’s still recent death and the Gunpowder plot scared Shakespeare’s time in history. King Lear then may be a partly a criticism of an inherently unfair society.To an Elizabethan audience Edmond’s self interest to not ‘stand in the plague of custom’ and not uphold his loyalty to the king and his father was of a growing trend. At the time then Edmond may not have been seen as a villain but perhaps a free thinking individual who was prepared to do whatever it took to be successful. The apparent lack of justice in King Lear is shown by King Lear himself ‘ I am a man, more sinned against than sinning’ Lear often reaches for some wider reason for his misfortunes but perhaps finds little comfort in the end when he realises his mistakes too late to change the play’s resolution.This aspect of the story follows the theories of tragedy from Aristotle and so Lear can be said to be a ‘tragic hero’. However if King Lear can be seen as a spiritual play then Lear’s ending is one of redemption and since both Gonerill and Regan die the kingdom can once again rise from the ashes. Cordelia too serves this metaphor embodying Christ’s noble crusade against evil with a french army and dying a martyr for her father but not without speaking with him and so restoring Lear’s jagged mind even if only partially.King Lear depicts the cruelty of humankind and the breakdown of a man’s mind, the social and family ties around him and his kingdom. The token examples of compassion, shown to the audience to some extent only amplify the Shakespeare’s ‘darker purpose’ of a savage loss of morals. What little justice thats offered at the e nd, Edgar prevailing over his brother for example can not compensate for the punishment that Lear and the other characters endure. The very notion of ‘nothing’ is so significant by the end of the play the most of the characters are literally reduced to nothing.

Facts, Fiction and Business Management Extended Essay Samples

Facts, Fiction and Business Management Extended Essay Samples Writing is a rather common class activity. Argentina wishes the most suitable for you. Ideas, Formulas and Shortcuts for Business Management Extended Essay Samples This part is where you are able to expound the concept that you're writing about. It's such an excellent aid to have word counts of distinct sections and a thorough description on how best to score high marks. With the aid of this absolutely free topic suggestion, students may eradicate their problem of searching assignment topics. Certain methods you'll be in a position to discover useful revision materials. When you turn to the net, however, you should be aware of the actions to employ to be in a position to locate what you want effectively. All the details can be found the organization website. All you have to do is enter our site and create a purchase. Hence, there's not a reason why you shouldn't try our templates. Hotel management textbook or exam study is a number of the words you're able to utilize to restrict your search. You must have specific particulars of the book or study material. If you're looking for assistance with your essay then we provide a comprehensive writing service given by fully qualified academics in your area of study. You can also find people with the study materials you desire and are even inclined to lend you. The cost of an essay is dependent upon the quantity of effort the writer has to exert. You are going to be able to explore distinctive books and check which books are readily available. You can create a summary the principal ideas you address. When you can't locate a specific study material, you may use the author's name to find it. Details of Business Management Extended Essay Samples Business management is important for me because I have a good desire to successfully manage people and company projects, and to create effective business-related policies. An elongated essay in company and management provides students with a chance to perform in-depth research in a place of private interest concerning business and management. There are a number of views about management. From time to time, the more complex the variety of management layers, the more probable that problems and solutions can't be communicated on quickly enough. Titlethis is your field of interest. Make certain that you choose a field that truly makes you curious and motivated to learn more about. If you're a student in the nursing field, it would be quite beneficial for you. The creation of knowledge appears to require creativity at each phase of the approach. In addition, I have experience in different projects' elaboration and digital management work. Why it is necessary to have Practical Knowledge in the industry of Nursing along with Theoretical. Not simply in the home, but in the schools too, it's extremely important to keep a good hygiene condition. I frequently take part in the set of student clubs and participate in the broad range of academic pursuits. In some instances, you may discover that the energy manager exam study material isn't downloadable. Here is a superb guide from Purdue to assist you. An excellent manager need to know how to steer clear of stressful conditions which might lead to conflicts at work. This has been shown to be an extremely powerful and quick means to assist with a writing assignment and find the business done properly. And this isn't the close of the story yet. Continue the terrific work!'' The Demise of Business Management Extended Essay Samples Organizational culture is a significant aspect in any administration. Information wasn't valued either. Influencing involves motivation of the employees. It is possible to also refer to our Essay Outline Templates to supply you with an idea about how to start.

University of Alabama at Birmingham Acceptance Rate, SAT/ACT Scores, GPA

The University of Alabama at Birmingham is a public research university with an acceptance rate of 92%. UAB is the largest employer in the state of Alabama and is also the largest research institution in the state. The university has many strengths, particularly in the health sciences. Students can choose from a number of majors, with Biology, Nursing, Education, and Psychology among the most popular. Academics are supported by an 19-to-1 student / faculty ratio. High achieving students might consider UABs University Honors Program which offers opportunities for travel and independent study or the Science and Technology Honors Program which allows students to attend symposia and conduct individual research with faculty members. In athletics, the UAB Blazers compete in the NCAA Division I Conference USA. Considering applying to University of Alabama at Birmingham? Here are the admissions statistics you should know, including average SAT/ACT scores and GPAs of admitted students. Acceptance Rate During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, UAB had an acceptance rate of 92%. This means that for every 100 students who applied, 92 students were admitted, making UABs admissions process less competitive. Admissions Statistics (2017-18) Number of Applicants 7,845 Percent Admitted 92% Percent Admitted Who Enrolled (Yield) 32% SAT Scores and Requirements The University of Alabama at Birmingham requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 1% of admitted students submitted SAT scores. SAT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile ERW 490 620 Math 490 620 ERW=Evidence-Based Reading and Writing This admissions data tells us that most of UABs admitted students fall within the bottom 29% nationally on the SAT. For the evidence-based reading and writing section, 50% of students admitted to The University of Alabama at Birmingham scored between 490 and 620, while 25% scored below 490 and 25% scored above 620. On the math section, 50% of admitted students scored between 490 and 620, while 25% scored below 490 and 25% scored above 620. Applicants with a composite SAT score of 1240 or higher will have particularly competitive chances at The University of Alabama at Birmingham. Requirements The University of Alabama at Birmingham considers your highest composite score from a single test date and does not superscore the SAT. At UAB, the SAT writing section and SAT Subject tests are not required. ACT Scores and Requirements UAB requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 98% of admitted students submitted ACT scores. ACT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile English 22 31 Math 19 26 Composite 21 29 This admissions data tells us that most of The University of Alabama at Birminghams admitted students fall within the top 42% nationally on the ACT. The middle 50% of students admitted to UAB received a composite ACT score between 21 and 29, while 25% scored above 29 and 25% scored below 21. Requirements Note that The University of Alabama at Birmingham does not superscore ACT results; your highest composite ACT will be considered. UAB does not require the ACT writing section. GPA In 2018, the average high school GPA of The University of Alabama at Birminghams incoming freshmen class was 3.73. This data suggests that most successful applicants to UAB have primarily A grades. Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph University of Alabama at Birmingham Applicants Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph. Data courtesy of Cappex. The admissions data in the graph is self-reported by applicants to The University of Alabama at Birmingham. GPAs are unweighted. Find out how you compare to accepted students, see the real-time graph, and calculate your chances of getting in with a free Cappex account. Admissions Chances The University of Alabama at Birmingham, which accepts over 90% of applicants, has a less selective admissions process. The primary factors in the admissions process are  rigor of high school courses, average GPA, and average SAT/ACT scores. UAB requires that applicants complete  core courses including four years of English; three years of social science, math, and science; and one year of a foreign language. If you have completed the course requirements and your SAT/ACT scores and GPA fall within the schools average ranges, you have a strong chance of being accepted. In the graph above, the blue and green dots represent students who were admitted to UAB. Most had SAT scores (ERWM) of 1000 or higher, ACT composite scores of 18 or higher, and a high school average of a B or higher. Your chances will be better with grades and test scores above these lower ranges, and you can see that a significant percentage of UAB students had high school averages in the A range.   If You Like UAB, You May Also Like These Colleges: Auburn UniversityUniversity of AlabamaUNC - AshevilleUniversity of MississippiUniversity of Louisville All admissions data has been sourced from the National Center for Education Statistics and University of Alabama at Birmingham Undergraduate Admissions Office. University of Alabama at Birmingham Acceptance Rate, SAT/ACT Scores, GPA The University of Alabama at Birmingham is a public research university with an acceptance rate of 92%. UAB is the largest employer in the state of Alabama and is also the largest research institution in the state. The university has many strengths, particularly in the health sciences. Students can choose from a number of majors, with Biology, Nursing, Education, and Psychology among the most popular. Academics are supported by an 19-to-1 student / faculty ratio. High achieving students might consider UABs University Honors Program which offers opportunities for travel and independent study or the Science and Technology Honors Program which allows students to attend symposia and conduct individual research with faculty members. In athletics, the UAB Blazers compete in the NCAA Division I Conference USA. Considering applying to University of Alabama at Birmingham? Here are the admissions statistics you should know, including average SAT/ACT scores and GPAs of admitted students. Acceptance Rate During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, UAB had an acceptance rate of 92%. This means that for every 100 students who applied, 92 students were admitted, making UABs admissions process less competitive. Admissions Statistics (2017-18) Number of Applicants 7,845 Percent Admitted 92% Percent Admitted Who Enrolled (Yield) 32% SAT Scores and Requirements The University of Alabama at Birmingham requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 1% of admitted students submitted SAT scores. SAT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile ERW 490 620 Math 490 620 ERW=Evidence-Based Reading and Writing This admissions data tells us that most of UABs admitted students fall within the bottom 29% nationally on the SAT. For the evidence-based reading and writing section, 50% of students admitted to The University of Alabama at Birmingham scored between 490 and 620, while 25% scored below 490 and 25% scored above 620. On the math section, 50% of admitted students scored between 490 and 620, while 25% scored below 490 and 25% scored above 620. Applicants with a composite SAT score of 1240 or higher will have particularly competitive chances at The University of Alabama at Birmingham. Requirements The University of Alabama at Birmingham considers your highest composite score from a single test date and does not superscore the SAT. At UAB, the SAT writing section and SAT Subject tests are not required. ACT Scores and Requirements UAB requires that all applicants submit either SAT or ACT scores. During the 2017-18 admissions cycle, 98% of admitted students submitted ACT scores. ACT Range (Admitted Students) Section 25th Percentile 75th Percentile English 22 31 Math 19 26 Composite 21 29 This admissions data tells us that most of The University of Alabama at Birminghams admitted students fall within the top 42% nationally on the ACT. The middle 50% of students admitted to UAB received a composite ACT score between 21 and 29, while 25% scored above 29 and 25% scored below 21. Requirements Note that The University of Alabama at Birmingham does not superscore ACT results; your highest composite ACT will be considered. UAB does not require the ACT writing section. GPA In 2018, the average high school GPA of The University of Alabama at Birminghams incoming freshmen class was 3.73. This data suggests that most successful applicants to UAB have primarily A grades. Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph University of Alabama at Birmingham Applicants Self-Reported GPA/SAT/ACT Graph. Data courtesy of Cappex. The admissions data in the graph is self-reported by applicants to The University of Alabama at Birmingham. GPAs are unweighted. Find out how you compare to accepted students, see the real-time graph, and calculate your chances of getting in with a free Cappex account. Admissions Chances The University of Alabama at Birmingham, which accepts over 90% of applicants, has a less selective admissions process. The primary factors in the admissions process are  rigor of high school courses, average GPA, and average SAT/ACT scores. UAB requires that applicants complete  core courses including four years of English; three years of social science, math, and science; and one year of a foreign language. If you have completed the course requirements and your SAT/ACT scores and GPA fall within the schools average ranges, you have a strong chance of being accepted. In the graph above, the blue and green dots represent students who were admitted to UAB. Most had SAT scores (ERWM) of 1000 or higher, ACT composite scores of 18 or higher, and a high school average of a B or higher. Your chances will be better with grades and test scores above these lower ranges, and you can see that a significant percentage of UAB students had high school averages in the A range.   If You Like UAB, You May Also Like These Colleges: Auburn UniversityUniversity of AlabamaUNC - AshevilleUniversity of MississippiUniversity of Louisville All admissions data has been sourced from the National Center for Education Statistics and University of Alabama at Birmingham Undergraduate Admissions Office.